Robe a la Francaise, 1770, LACMA M.2007.211 – beautiful and expensive printed cotton

One of the top questions I get from budding 18th century costumers is “what fabric should I use?” Luckily, there is ample choice for the Georgian era, though not as much a today with all sorts of modern mixes and fibers, so the confusion is understandable. So in the eternal words of Captain Barbossa, let’s establish some “guidelines”…

The Four 18th Century Fibers

• Linen
• Wool
• Cotton
• Silk

These are all natural fibers and all there was for clothing before the 20th century (excluding leather and fur). Ready for the gigantic textile post? Let’s go!

Linen – The most common fabric of the 18th century

A linen shift, 3rd quarter of the 18th century, The Met, C.I.41.161.7

Linen was used for just about everything – underwear, linings, caps, aprons, and other millinery, men’s and women’s clothing, you name it. It was cheap, readily available, and came in all sorts of weights. Unfortunately today linen is the complete opposite. Expensive, hard to find in good quality, and often too heavy, slubby, and loosely-woven. However, all hope is not lost – our favorite historical fabric small businesses have good selections of good quality linen. Check out Burnley & Trowbridge and Renaissance Fabrics. 

Plain woven works for undergarments, linings, millinery, and outer clothing.

The rust-colored linen lining of a Robe a la Francaise, c. 1765-75, Augusta Auctions. You can also see a coarser, sturdier linen used for the sleeve cuffs.

Herringbone/Twill works great for linings and outer garments.

Weight and tightness of weave is important when sourcing linen.

• For shifts and shirts

   – tightly woven and lightweight as possible without being sheer. Look for “shirt weight” as a search term.
• For millinery – (ruffles, decorative aprons, kerchiefs, caps), a tightly woven, lightweight linen in bright white. Kerchief were also seen in checks and stripes. Look for “handkerchief weight.”
• For linings, – medium-weight, tightly woven white, ivory, natural (brown), or orangey-russety color is ideal. Sometimes linings were also striped or pieced with other linen bits.

• For gowns and clothing

   – light to medium weight, tightly woven linen in solids, stripes, and checks. 

In the 1790s, gauzier, looser-woven linens are seen for gowns, but undergarments and linings remained tight-woven structural fabrics.

Handling notes – wash and dry linen before using it, firstly to remove the factory finishing that makes it stiff, and secondly to shrink it. Starch and iron it thoroughly before cutting to make it easier to handle. Keep caps well-starched to hold their shape.

Wool – The “workhorse” textile of the Georgian era.

Another extremely common and affordable fabric, wool was common for working dress and outerwear. It was worn in all months of the year – yes, summer too! Wool has magical, natural properties of being insulating in the winter, breathable and cool in the summer, antimicrobial, washable (yes, really!), and fire retardant.

A plain weave worsted wool gown, 1775-95, Historic Deerfield, 2003.27.1

We associate wool primarily with working class clothing, but wool came in all sorts of weaves and blends back then too. There are two fantastic wool brocade gown in the Colonial Williamsburg collection, my fave being this black worsted brocade, though it’s very difficult to find such fabric today. Instead, here’s what to look for – 

• Worsted Wool – lightweight, good for summer, and available in lots of colors. Worsteds come in twill and plain weaves. Great for gowns.
• Flannels – similar to worsted wool, flannel is a plain-woven wool with a fuzzy texture. It can be used for winter shifts, petticoats, as well as gowns.
• Broadcloth – a dense fabric with lots of body, in various weights. Broadcloth was common for men’s clothing and women’s outerwear and utility clothing such as riding and traveling attire.
• Superfine – an extremely tightly-woven, dense broadcloth used for uniforms, riding habits, and outerwear. This is the magic no-hem fabric and does not fray with a raw-cut edge. The heavy version of this is called “melton” today and used as coating.

Riding coat of brown worsted wool, 1750-59, V&A, T.197-1984

Suppliers for historically accurate wools are Burnley & Trowbridge, Renaissance Fabrics, and Wm. Booth Draper. 

Handling Notes – hand wash on cold with a conditioning detergent like Woolite. Roll up in a towel and walk on it to remove excess water without wringing, then lay flat to air dry. Never ever dry in the dryer with any heat unless you want an itty-bitty gown.

Cotton – the fancy new fabric of the 18th century.

Cotton was an expensive novelty fabric when it became popular in 17th century Europe. A fabric of the “orient,” printed cottons from India were particularly desirable and extremely expensive, as were very fine muslins.

In England, imported Indienne cottons were banned between 1721 and 1774, though this was not the case in the American colonies or elsewhere in Europe. Changes in technology, colonization, and trade lifted the British domestic ban as British-produced cotton textiles became available and competitive, made from raw cotton still imported from India.

A very fine muslin that’s been embroidered in gold. Dress, 1795, LACMA, M.57.24

Single-color, simple prints became readily available to the lower classes and were worn extensively. Cotton, after all, was easy to wash and oh-so-attractive with myriad printed, colorful designs. Here are the basics on choosing cotton for your projects today.

The more colors and hand-painted bits of design, the more expensive the printed cotton. Gown at Platt Hall, Manchester

• Floral prints – really accurate or passable ones can be difficult to find. YLook for an open ground most commonly white, and simple graphic flowers and stems in basic colors like red, brown, purple, blue, and green. Dark grounds such as brown, purple, and Turkey red are also accurate. Renaissance Fabrics has a few of the Colonial Williamsburg prints. Reproduction Fabrics has a small collection of appropriate prints. My particular favorite, though, is Ikea (yes!) though their prints go in and out of production year-to-year. 
• Simple prints – spots, small repetitive graphic shapes, very simple floral motifs, and shells. It’s surprising how “modern” these fabrics can look, and sometimes you might get lucky in the quilting cotton section of Joann’s. Look for simple, one or two color, repetitive motifs that could plausibly have been block printed. In the 1790s, roller-printed cotton was in production and replaced block printing.
• Plain cotton/muslin – in white or light ivory, but be careful with solid dyed colors until the very end of the century, if at all. Plain white cotton muslin became common for millinery and eventually undergarments. Gowns in extremely fine, light muslin exist but also seem to be primarily white. (I need to do more research on solid-dyed muslins in the 18th century. If you know about these, please comment!)          

Handling Notes – wash, dry, and iron before cutting to remove the finishing and shrink it.

Silk – the pretty stuff, but also the most expensive.

A stunning brocaded silk layers deep. Robe a la Francaise, 1760-70, The Met, 2009.300.903a,b

18th century silks, along with polychromatic printed cottons, were the most desirable of dress textiles. Highly figured, decorative silks were expensive and displayed affluence, costing far more to purchase than the labor to make into gowns. This is one reason why silk gowns were disassembled and remade again and again for decades.

But not all silks were hugely expensive. Silk was a more common fabric than often thought, and cheaper silks were worn by anybody who could afford them. As a middle-class woman you might not be able to afford Spitalfields brocade, but your best dress might very well be a plain-woven, cheap silk.

Striped silk taffeta. This fabric is tightly-woven enough to be pinked. Robe a l’Anglaise, 1785-87, The Met, C.I.66

Decent silk today is considerably less expensive than in the past, but we have far less variety. Here are my go-to silks and sources:

• Taffeta – My main choice for most historical gowns. It’s extremely lightweight and has great body, comes in lots of colors, stripes, checks, embroidered, and is fairly available from lovely shops like Silk Baron, Burnley & Trowbridge, Fancy Styles Fabric, and Renaissance Fabrics.
• Figured & Faille Silk – These are silks with either a small dot or diamond woven in or woven “ribbed” texture. Modern faille can be a bit too drapey, so be careful with the weight and hand with this one. Renaissance Fabrics has a good selection. 
• Satin & Duchesse Satin – heavier and drapier than taffeta, satin gives a particular glossy shimmer. It usually comes in solid colors and is extremely luxurious though can be quite expensive. You want a heavier satin for dress weight, rather than a very thin floaty satin.
• Brocade & Damask – popular throughout the 18th century, in all sorts of patterns. Silk brocades are harder to find these days and are often mixed with rayon or another fiber. The other catch is they are commonly made for upholstery and are significantly heavier than original dress length brocades. However, a good brocade can make a stunning gown. Modern brocades are often called “Lampas” or “Jacquard.” Sometimes there is a decent selection at Renaissance Fabrics and Puresilks.us.
• Organza (“Gauze”) – this light and airy plain-woven silk fabric is stiff, with lots of body. It was very commonly used for millinery – ruffles and trimmings, caps, aprons, kerchiefs, etc.

Handling Notes – never wash it, as the hand and weave will be irretrievably altered. To avoid sweat stains, use dress shields in the armpits.

* A word on blends. Linen/cotton, silk/wool, wool/cotton – yup, all these existed. Go for it.

** About velvet – both silk velvet and cotton velvet were available. Be mindful of the weight.

An example of velvet. Velvet and velveteen were used for gown, jackets, habits, capes, muffs, and other cold-wear attire. 1745 January. Thomas Burford (British artist, 1710-1770)

*** Regarding Dupioni – regular raw-silk, Thai silk, or hand-loomed Dupioni is way too slubby for 18th century dress, but a machine-made Dupioni can be a good stand-in for a cheap 18th-century taffeta, so long as it is relatively low on the slubs. Swatch it before you buy, if shopping online, and be mindful of weight. 

And lastly, expense and availability as relate to polyester and man-made fabrics. There is absolutely nothing wrong with making a historical costume out of faux silk. There are pretty good-looking polys out there, and as a beginning costumer it is intimidating and expensive to use real silk when you’re afraid of messing it all up. I have been there!
Because of the properties of the four natural fibers – ease of working with them and breathability – I recommend building up your dressmaking skills by first choosing a cotton or a wool. These are by far the easiest to wrangle. When you’re confident, tackle that silk gown.

One of my first gowns made from a beautiful faux silk.

Thank you for reading my super-duper long post about fabrics! This is not an exhaustive list, but hopefully it has helped and given you a better idea and direction for your next 18th century gown.

–Lauren

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25.2: Textile Manufacturing

25.2.1: The British Textile Industry

The British textile industry drove the Industrial Revolution, triggering advancements in technology, stimulating the coal and iron industries, boosting raw material imports, and improving transportation, which made Britain the global leader of industrialization, trade, and scientific innovation.

Learning Objective

Evaluate the British textile industry and its place in the global market before and after the Industrial Revolution

Key Points

• Before the 17th century, the manufacture of textiles was performed on a limited scale by individual workers, usually on their own premises. Goods were transported around the country by clothiers who visited the village with their trains of packhorses. Some of the cloth was made into clothes for people living in the same area and a large amount of cloth was exported.
• In the early 18th century, the British government passed two Calico Acts to protect the domestic woolen industry from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from competitors in India. On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were still done in households, for domestic consumption, and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver.
• The key British industry at the beginning of the 18th century was the production of textiles made with wool from large sheep-farming areas. This was a labor-intensive activity providing employment throughout Britain. The export trade in woolen goods accounted for more than a quarter of British exports during most of the 18th century, doubling between 1701 and 1770. Exports by the cotton industry had grown tenfold during this time, but still accounted for only a tenth of the value of the wool trade.
• Starting in the later part of the 18th century, mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques, and the increased use of refined coal began. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and railways. Factories pulled thousands from low-productivity work in agriculture to high-productivity urban jobs.
• Textiles have been identified as the catalyst of technological changes and thus their importance during the Industrial Revolution cannot be overstated. The application of steam power stimulated the demand for coal. The demand for machinery and rails stimulated the iron industry. The demand for transportation to move raw material in and finished products out stimulated the growth of the canal system, and (after 1830) the railway system.
• From 1815 to 1870 Britain reaped the benefits of being the world’s first modern industrialized nation. If political conditions in a particular overseas market were stable, Britain could dominate its economy through free trade alone without resorting to formal rule or mercantilism. By 1820, 30% of Britain’s exports went to its Empire, rising slowly to 35% by 1910. Apart from coal and iron, most raw materials had to be imported. By 1900, Britain’s global share soared to 22.8% of total imports. By 1922, its global share soared to 14.9% of total exports and 28.8% of manufactured exports.

Key Terms

mercantilism

An economic theory and practice dominant in Western Europe during the 16th to mid-19th centuries and a form of economic nationalism. Its goal was to enrich and empower the nation and state to the maximum degree by acquiring and retaining as much economic activity as possible within the nation’s borders. Manufacturing and industry, particularly of goods with military applications, was prioritized.

cottage industry

A small-scale industry in which the creation of products and services is home-based rather than factory-based. It was a dominant form of production in prior to industrialization but continues to exist today. While products and services are often unique and distinctive, given that they are usually not mass-produced, producers in this sector often face numerous disadvantages when trying to compete with much larger factory-based companies.

putting-out system

A means of subcontracting work, historically known as the workshop system and the domestic system, in which work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen.

Calico Acts

Two legislative acts, one of 1700 and one of 1721, that banned the import of most cotton textiles into England, followed by the restriction of sale of most cotton textiles.

 

Pre-Industrial Textile Industry

Before the 17th century, the manufacture of goods was performed on a limited scale by individual workers, usually on their own premises. Goods were transported around the country by clothiers who visited the village with their trains of packhorses. Some was made into clothes for people living in the same area and a large amount was exported. In the early 18th century, artisans were inventing ways to become more productive. Silk, wool, fustian (a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft), and linen were eclipsed by cotton, which was becoming the most important textile. This set the foundation for the changes.

In the early 18th century, the British government passed two Calico Acts to protect the domestic wool industry from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from its competitors in India.On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were still done in households, for domestic consumption, and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers’ wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver.

The key British industry at the beginning of the 18th century was the production of textiles made with wool from the large sheep-farming areas in the Midlands and across the country (created as a result of land-clearance and enclosure). This was a labor-intensive activity providing employment throughout Britain, with major centers in the West Country, Norwich and environs, and the West Riding of Yorkshire. The export trade in woolen goods accounted for more than a quarter of British exports during most of the 18th century, doubling between 1701 and 1770. Exports by the cotton industry – centered in Lancashire – grew tenfold during this time, but still accounted for only a tenth of the value of the woolen trade.

 

Industrial Revolution and Textiles

Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there was a transition in parts of Great Britain’s previously manual labor and draft animal-based economy toward machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques, and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and railways. Factories pulled thousands from low-productivity work in agriculture to high-productivity urban jobs.

Textiles have been identified as the catalyst of technological changes and thus their importance during the Industrial Revolution cannot be overstated. The application of steam power stimulated the demand for coal. The demand for machinery and rails stimulated the iron industry. The demand for transportation to move raw material in and finished products out stimulated the growth of the canal system, and (after 1830) the railway system. The introduction of steam power fueled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels, and powered machinery in textile manufacturing underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world.

The invention of the flying shuttle by John Kay enabled wider cloth to be woven faster, but also created a demand for yarn that could not be fulfilled. Thus, the major technological advances associated with the Industrial Revolution were concerned with spinning. James Hargreaves created the spinning jenny, a device that could perform the work of a number of spinning wheels. However, while this invention could be operated by hand, the water frame, invented by Richard Arkwright, could be powered by a water wheel. Arkwright is credited with the widespread introduction of the factory system in Britain and is the first example of the successful mill owner and industrialist in British history. The water frame was, however, soon supplanted by the spinning mule (a cross between a water frame and a jenny) invented by Samuel Crompton. Mules were later constructed in iron.

In a period loosely dated from the 1770s to the 1820s, Britain experienced an accelerated process of economic change that transformed a largely agrarian economy into the world’s first industrial economy. The changes were far-reaching and permanent throughout many areas of Britain, eventually affecting the entire world.

 The steam engine was invented and became a power supply that soon surpassed waterfalls and horsepower. The first practicable steam engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen and was used for pumping water out of mines. A much more powerful steam engine was invented by James Watt. It had a reciprocating engine capable of powering machinery. The first steam-driven textile mills began to appear in the last quarter of the 18th century, greatly contributing to the appearance and rapid growth of industrial towns.

The progress of the textile trade soon outstripped the original supplies of raw materials. By the turn of the 19th century, imported American cotton had replaced wool in the North West of England, although wool remained the chief textile in Yorkshire.

Such an unprecedented degree of economic growth was not sustained by domestic demand alone. The application of technology and the factory system created the levels of mass production and cost efficiency that enabled British manufacturers to export inexpensive cloth and other items worldwide. Britain’s position as the world’s preeminent trader helped fund research and experimentation. Further, some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment.

 

Global Leader

After 1840, Britain abandoned mercantilism and committed its economy to free trade with few barriers or tariffs. This was most evident in the repeal in 1846 of the Corn Laws, which imposed stiff tariffs on imported grain. The end of these laws opened the British market to unfettered competition, grain prices fell, and food became more plentiful.

From 1815 to 1870 Britain reaped the benefits of being the world’s first modern, industrialized nation. The British readily described their country as “the workshop of the world,” meaning that its finished goods were produced so efficiently and cheaply that they could often undersell comparable locally manufactured goods in almost any other market. If political conditions in a particular overseas market were stable enough, Britain could dominate its economy through free trade alone without resorting to formal rule or mercantilism. By 1820, 30% of Britain’s exports went to its Empire, rising slowly to 35% by 1910. Apart from coal and iron, most raw materials had to be imported so in the 1830s, the main imports were (in order): raw cotton (from the American South), sugar (from the West Indies), wool, silk, tea (from China), timber (from Canada), wine, flax, hides, and tallow. By 1900, Britain’s global share soared to 22.8% of total imports. By 1922, its global share soared to 14.9% of total exports and 28.8% of manufactured export

 

Attributions